Proposals

M. A. Syverson at the University of Texas at Austin describes a proposal as the initiation of a process of inquiry on a topic or project. It provides a starting point for the activities of composing by identifying the key issues, methods, and sources you plan to develop further through the project itself.

Basic features of a solid proposal:

1. It defines a question, problem, or issue [or a set of these] addressed by the project. This is the "engine" that drives the inquiry into the topic.
2. It identifies the audience(s) the project will address.
3. It explains why the inquiry is significant for a particular audience or audiences.
4. It proposes a method or approach to start the inquiry. Several methods may be proposed, if the project is large or complex.
5. It suggests relevant sources of information about the inquiry you are aware of or plan to look for.

The inquiry should be:

• compelling (interesting for you)
• manageable (able to be carried out)
• significant (interesting for others)

Proposals in the social sciences typically fall into one of two categories: research proposals or grant proposals. 

View the video "Process Analysis" for a closer look at how-to writing. Scroll down to the selected video title and click the VoD icon to view.

Research Proposals

As explained by Paul Wong at Trinity Western University, a research proposal is intended to convince others that you have a worthwhile research project and that you have the competence and the work-plan to complete it. Generally, a research proposal should contain all the key elements involved in the research process and include sufficient information for the readers to evaluate the proposed study.

Regardless of your research area and the methodology you choose, all research proposals must address the following questions: What you plan to accomplish, why you want to do it and how you are going to do it.

The proposal should have sufficient information to convince your readers that you have an important research idea, that you have a good grasp of the relevant literature and the major issues, and that your methodology is sound.

The quality of your research proposal depends not only on the quality of your proposed project, but also on the quality of your proposal writing. A good research project may run the risk of rejection simply because the proposal is poorly written. Therefore, it pays if your writing is coherent, clear and compelling.

The following components should be contained in your research proposal:

• Title:
  • It should be concise and descriptive. For example, the phrase, "An investigation of . . ." could be omitted. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship, because such titles clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. However, if possible, think of an informative but catchy title. An effective title not only pricks the reader's interest, but also predisposes him/her favorably towards the proposal.
• Abstract:
  • It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any), the method and the main findings. Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample and any instruments that will be used.
• Introduction:
  • The main purpose of the introduction is to provide the necessary background or context for your research problem. How to frame the research problem is perhaps the biggest problem in proposal writing.
  • If the research problem is framed in the context of a general, rambling literature review, then the research question may appear trivial and uninteresting. However, if the same question is placed in the context of a very focused and current research area, its significance will become evident.
  • Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on how to frame your research question just as there is no prescription on how to write an interesting and informative opening paragraph. A lot depends on your creativity, your ability to think clearly and the depth of your understanding of problem areas.
  • However, try to place your research question in the context of either a current "hot" area, or an older area that remains viable. Secondly, you need to provide a brief but appropriate historical backdrop. Thirdly, provide the contemporary context in which your proposed research question occupies the central stage. Finally, identify "key players" and refer to the most relevant and representative publications. In short, try to paint your research question in broad brushes and at the same time bring out its significance.
  • The introduction typically begins with a general statement of the problem area, with a focus on a specific research problem, to be followed by the rational or justification for the proposed study. The introduction generally covers the following elements:
    • State the research problem, which is often referred to as the purpose of the study.
    • Provide the context and set the stage for your research question in such a way as to show its necessity and importance.
    • Present the rationale of your proposed study and clearly indicate why it is worth doing.
    • Briefly describe the major issues and sub-problems to be addressed by your research.
    • Identify the key independent and dependent variables of your experiment. Alternatively, specify the phenomenon you want to study.
    • State your hypothesis or theory, if any. For exploratory or phenomenological research, you may not have any hypotheses. (Please do not confuse the hypothesis with the statistical null hypothesis.)
    • Set the delimitation or boundaries of your proposed research in order to provide a clear focus.
    • Provide definitions of key concepts. (This is optional.)

• Literature Review:
• • Sometimes the literature review is incorporated into the introduction section. However, most professors prefer a separate section, which allows a more thorough review of the literature.
  • The literature review serves several important functions:

1. 1. 1. Ensures that you are not "reinventing the wheel".
      2. Gives credits to those who have laid the groundwork for your research.
      3. Demonstrates your knowledge of the research problem.
      4. Demonstrates your understanding of the theoretical and research issues related to your research question.
      5. Shows your ability to critically evaluate relevant literature information.
      6. Indicates your ability to integrate and synthesize the existing literature.
      7. Provides new theoretical insights or develops a new model as the conceptual framework for your research.
      8. Convinces your reader that your proposed research will make a significant and substantial contribution to the literature (i.e., resolving an important theoretical issue or filling a major gap in the literature).

• Most students' literature reviews suffer from the following problems:
  • Lacking organization and structure
  • Lacking focus, unity and coherence
  • Being repetitive and verbose
  • Failing to cite influential papers
  • Failing to keep up with recent developments
  • Failing to critically evaluate cited papers
  • Citing irrelevant or trivial references
  • Depending too much on secondary sources

Your scholarship and research competence will be questioned if any of the above applies to your proposal.

• There are different ways to organize your literature review. Make use of subheadings to bring order and coherence to your review. For example, having established the importance of your research area and its current state of development, you may devote several subsections on related issues as: theoretical models, measuring instruments, cross-cultural and gender differences, etc.
• It is also helpful to keep in mind that you are telling a story to an audience. Try to tell it in a stimulating and engaging manner. Do not bore them, because it may lead to rejection of your worthy proposal. (Remember: Professors and scientists are human beings too.)
• Methods:
  • The Method section is very important because it tells your Research Committee how you plan to tackle your research problem. It will provide your work plan and describe the activities necessary for the completion of your project.
  • The guiding principle for writing the Method section is that it should contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether methodology is sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient details for another qualified researcher to implement the study.
  • You need to demonstrate your knowledge of alternative methods and make the case that your approach is the most appropriate and most valid way to address your research question.
  • Please note that your research question may be best answered by qualitative research. However, since most mainstream psychologists are still biased against qualitative research, especially the phenomenological variety, you may need to justify your qualitative method.
  • Furthermore, since there are no well-established and widely accepted canons in qualitative analysis, your method section needs to be more elaborate than what is required for traditional quantitative research. More importantly, the data collection process in qualitative research has a far greater impact on the results as compared to quantitative research. That is another reason for greater care in describing how you will collect and analyze your data. (How to write the Method section for qualitative research is a topic for another paper.)
  • For quantitative studies, the method section typically consists of the following sections:

1. 1. 1. Design -Is it a questionnaire study or a laboratory experiment? What kind of design do you choose?
      2. Subjects or participants - Who will take part in your study ? What kind of sampling procedure do you use?
      3. Instruments - What kind of measuring instruments or questionnaires do you use? Why do you choose them? Are they valid and reliable?
      4. Procedure - How do you plan to carry out your study? What activities are involved? How long does it take?

• Results:
• • Obviously you do not have results at the proposal stage. However, you need to have some idea about what kind of data you will be collecting, and what statistical procedures will be used in order to answer your research question or test you hypothesis.
• Discussion:
• • It is important to convince your reader of the potential impact of your proposed research. You need to communicate a sense of enthusiasm and confidence without exaggerating the merits of your proposal. That is why you also need to mention the limitations and weaknesses of the proposed research, which may be justified by time and financial constraints as well as by the early developmental stage of your research area.

Common Mistakes in Proposal Writing:

1. Failure to provide the proper context to frame the research question.
2. Failure to delimit the boundary conditions for your research.
3. Failure to cite landmark studies.
4. Failure to accurately present the theoretical and empirical contributions by other researchers.
5. Failure to stay focused on the research question.
6. Failure to develop a coherent and persuasive argument for the proposed research.
7. Too much detail on minor issues, but not enough detail on major issues.
8. Too much rambling -- going "all over the map" without a clear sense of direction. (The best proposals move forward with ease and grace like a seamless river.)
9. Too many citation lapses and incorrect references.
10. Too long or too short.
11. Failing to follow the APA style.
12. Sloppy writing.

For more information on writing research proposals, see:

• Writing the Research Proposal
• Proposal Writing and Research Development
• Elements of a Research Proposal and Report
• Beginners Guide to the Research Proposal

Grant Proposals

"Each year, the U.S. government along with private foundations and public corporations offer billions of dollars in funding to individuals and organizations to be used for specific projects. This funding, which is called a grant, requires no repayment as long as it is used to fund the project for which it was allocated. Grants can be given to individuals, non-profit or not-for-profit companies, charitable organizations, or educational facilities. In order to receive a grant, however, the prospective recipient must submit a formal request to the organization. This request is called a grant proposal." (www.wisegeek.com, ¶1). In addition to the large-scale grants provided by the government, foundations and corporations, there are also many smaller-scale grants available at the local level.  

One of the most time-consuming aspects of writing a grant proposal is the pre-grant preparation process. Prior to writing a grant proposal, you should:

1. Define your project
2. Identify the right funding sources
3. Contact the funding organization
4. Acquire proposal guidelines
5. Know the submission deadline
6. Determine personnel needs
7. Update your timeline

As explained by Loyola Marymount University Office of Sponsored Programs, there is no "standard" proposal. Proposals should be designed and structured based upon the requirements of the specific grant. Despite the lack of a standardized format, most proposals include a number of key elements:

• Cover Page
  The cover page summarizes important identifying information: the proposal title; the name, address and telephone number of the principal investigator; the agency and program name; the project's beginning and ending dates; and the budget request.

• Summary/Abstract
  A well-written abstract encapsulates the entire proposal, conveying the who, what, where, when, why, and how much of the proposed project.  This is usually limited to a page or two. 

• Introduction
  The introduction draws the reviewer into the proposal, outlining the project and its intent.

• Problem Statement
  This section describes the need for your project, your goals and objectives, and your hypothesis or research questions.  Your statement of goals presents your vision of the worth and overall contribution of your project.  The statement of objectives should be presented in measurable, quantifiable terms.
  

• Methodology
  Describe the methods you will use to achieve your desired outcomes.  It is helpful, and often a requirement, to create a timeline for the activities which constitute your method or approach in order to persuade reviewers that you are organized and able to manage the complex demands of a project.

• Budget
  Budgets should reflect all the costs related to fundable activities in your project, including personnel costs, such as salaries and wages and fringe benefits, and non-personnel costs, such as travel, equipment, materials and supplies and reproduction.
  

• Budget Narrative
  The budget narrative provides a detailed explanation of how the budget figures were derived.

• Evaluation Method
  An evaluation method measures the proposal's stated objectives in order to determine the project's progress and success.  Interim or formative evaluations help to fine-tune the project. 
  

• Conclusion
  A brief conclusion reiterates the significance and the purpose of your project.

• Appendices
  Each sponsor will have their own preferences and limitations. Typical attachments include a curriculum vitae, letters of support, statistical tables, audited financial statements, and similar documents.

For additional information on structuring your grant proposals, see:

• What is a Grant Proposal?
• Writing a Successful Grant Proposal
• Grant Proposal Writing Tips
• Developing and Writing Grant Proposals